How Children Are Affected Children With Non Divorced...

According to the Encyclopedia of Psychology, one half of all marriages in the United States end in divorce. With these one million children are affected each year. Eighty five percent of these children live in single parent households, with the mother being the head of the house. The father is usually distant or does not speak to the children at all. These children are highly affected and experience a great deal of emotional and academic problems. Especially when you compare them to children with non-divorced parents. During adolescence, these children have twice as high as a rate of dropping out of high school, having teenage pregnancy, and experiencing deliquiate behavior. I am not a child of divorce, but a child dear to me is. I have seen firsthand the emotional tear that it can play into a child’s life, and the way it affects a family. Divorce may cause children to grow up anxious and scared. Children may even ask themselves â€Å"why me?†, â€Å"what can I do?â₠¬ , and â€Å"where should I go from here?†. Divorce can greatly affect a child’s relationship with both parents. As well as other family members, such as grandparents. Children that must go through divorce often feel like they might have commitment issues, due to the devastation of their parents’ divorce and the lack of commitment the parents had for each other. Most parents who get divorced usually remarry within three years of their previous divorce. Meaning that the children must go through the experience of adapting to aShow MoreRelatedDivorce : The Impact It Has On The Family1541 Words   |  7 Pagesfamily and the relationship between children and parents. It can lead to negative effects of the family, especially the children. Everyone is affected by the split. In addition, the experience of divorce is different for everyone involved. The relationship the children have with the parents changes drastically. One study shows that divorced mothers have poorer and less stimulating home environments, especially for mothers that are raising boys. Furthermore, divorced mothers, despite their best intentionsRead MoreWhy Parents Should Not Leave After The Divorce Essay1673 Words   |  7 Pagesill-emotional experience that changes the lives of both parents and their children (Chavez, 2010). The relationship between parents is really important to the children as it makes them feel more confident. Mostly we see these things changing when the parents separated due to the custodial parent as children become more confused in their lives. It also leaves the parents affected. The literature covering this issue suggests that these disturbing events affect parents’ emotional, psychological, and financial stabilityRead MoreEffects of Divorce on the Academic Achievement of a Child959 Words   |  4 PagesNigeria: Effects of Divorce On Children s Education By Gimba Abdullahi Liman, 15 June 2012 Related Topics * Nigeria Nigeria: Malabu Oil - How Shell, ENI Brokere... * Children Tanzania: Child Mortality Cases Decline Ads by Google * Need a Cheap Divorce Now? Let us help you find the CheapestDivorce Lawyer for your needs. www.PriceNet.co.za/Lawyers * Investec Rhino Lifeline Investec amp; Dr Fowlds Aim to RaiseAwareness of the Rhino Crisis. www.RhinoLifeline.co.za DivorceRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Children And The Association With Children s Self Esteem By Kim Bastaits1466 Words   |  6 Pagesof divorce. My parents got divorced when I was around five years old. I’m always very interested in the affects divorce has on children, since I am one. Our society has changed to mostly accept divorce. I think divorce is related to the course material because it’s happening a lot in our society; sociology is the study of social behavior, organization, and development. I’m interested in how divorced fathers affect their children’s future. In the research paper, Parenting of Divorced Fathers and theRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Children And Children1548 Words   |  7 Pages The Effects of Divorce on Children Mikele J. King Medaille College Abstract The current divorce rate suggests that one out of every two marriages will end in divorce. This paper is a critical literature review that explores the hypothesis that divorce has detrimental effects on children. Six different risks have been suggested to cause the differences in an increased need for help between divorced family children and two-parent family children: parental loss, economic loss, more lifeRead MoreEffect Of Divorce On Children Essay1203 Words   |  5 PagesDivorce on Children Back in the 1950s and 1960s, the majority of children were raised in homes that occupied two parents. Today, about forty percent of children are raised in single parent homes. Some may say this is partially due to the alarming rate of people with children that are divorcing. The mother will typically receive custody of the children after the divorce is finalized. Some are concerned about the rise in divorce rates and of children who will move on to live in a single parent householdRead MoreThe Effects Of Social Awkwardness On Students1407 Words   |  6 Pages Social awkwardness is something that a lot of people have, but is it affected more when a students parents are divorced? This topic is important to know because it shows how students interact with each other and when they meet new people. The purpose of this study was to see if a students would be more socially awkward if their parents are divorced. For my survey, I tested guys and girls ranging from each grade level, so 14- 18 year olds and I allowed anyone to take it, so race wasn’t part ofRead MoreFamilial Support For Children During The Stressful Period Of Divorce Essay1605 Words   |  7 PagesFamilial support for children. In many cases, parents or other family members are not able to be as supportive to their children during the stressful period surrounding divorce. One study by Amato (1993) noted that divorce is one of the life’s most stressful occurrences, and adults experience significant difficulty in their life adjustment after the divorce, which may impact their interactions with their children. Parents are less emotionally available during this time (Riggio Valenzuela, 2011)Read MoreDivorce Negative Effects1285 Words   |  6 Pagesexperience in a persons life, especially a childs’. When parents divorce, children are left hopeless and confused. A divorce can cause a child to have a variety of different reactions. The effects on the child are much more important than the actual divorce. A divorce causes the most damage to the children in the divorce. Each child sees a divorce differently, but most divorces have a negative impact on the childs life. When I was a teengager, my pare nts spilt up. This was an extremely hard time for meRead MoreHow Divorce Is Affected By The Separation940 Words   |  4 Pagesgoing through a divorce it is very important to know the effects that it can have on children. Divorce, in most cases, depending on the circumstance, will have a negative effect on children. Some of the results after a divorce can leave a child in short or long term situations. Adults tend to recover and move on to a new relationship, but the effects on children can be more long term (â€Å"Are†). More and more parents are getting divorces as time goes on, and more kids are being exposed to the situation

Plato The Grandfather of Democracy Essay - 1156 Words

Plato: The Grandfather of Democracy The history and the evolution of what we know as law, has developed out of many different viewpoints and philosophies. It has been the result of the operational and manipulative aspects of public affairs, and also seems to be the creation of different philosophical systems. There have been many that have been innovators in this area of thought from political leaders and dictators, to others who were simple political idealists and philosophers. Through the wisdom and teachings of Plato, law has evolved into many different systems, and through this paper we will discuss the impact this particular philosopher had had on our modern system of democracy. We will also try to recognize that law will†¦show more content†¦Then in democracy, I went on, theres no compulsion either to exercise authority if you are capable of it, or to submit to authority if you dont want to; you neednt fight if theres a war, or you can wage a private war in peacetime if you dont like peace; and if t heres any law that debars you from political or judicial office, you will none the less take either if they come your way. Its a wonderfully pleasant way if carrying on in the short run, isnt it?(The Republic). In An Introduction to Platos Republic by Julia Annas, she argues Plato presents democracy as defined by tolerant pluralism, but Athens was a populist democracy, with a clearly defined way of life separating those with power from those without, and about as tolerant of openly expressed nonconformity as McCarthyite America! Here, Annus is using the comparison of democracy to tolerant pluralism, as a way of saying that within Platos view of this type of political system there exists many different realities, and seems to question if law exists at all. She compares his so-called democracy as what is commonly referred to as anarchy. Plato believes there are three social classes in democracy: the drones (unemployed), the rich, and the working masses. He says there will eventually be a period of unrest between the people and the government, and the working class will put forward a single popular leader, whom they nurse to greatness, and it is this leader whoShow MoreRelatedPlato s Philosophy And Philosophy1070 Words   |  5 PagesPlato, a Greek philosopher, was born around 423 to 428 BC, and died around 347 or 348 BC, at the age of eighty. He was a great philosopher, taught by Socrates. His dialogues have been used to teach many subjects, consisting of logic, ethics, rhetoric, religion, and mathematics, as well as philosophy. Plato was born between 429 and 423 BC, in either Athens or Aegina. At some point during his childhood, his father died, but the date is unknown. He was named Aristocles after his grandfather, but hisRead MoreThe Philosopher Who Was An Ancient Greek Philosopher Essay1553 Words   |  7 PagesToday I chose to talk about the philosopher Plato who was an Ancient Greek philosopher who founded the Academy and is also one of the authors of philosophical works of a lot of influential works in Western civilization. Plato was born around the times of Circa in 428 B.C.E. and because of the lack of many sources from his time period, unfortunately, much of Plato’s work in his life has been reconstructed by scholars throughout his writings which were discovered and analyzed by very intelligentRead MoreThe Fall of the United States/Rome II?3132 Words   |  13 PagesWebster.com) Section I: Structures’ of roman government The Roman Constitution was mainly handed down verbally and sustained changes over time. It was created as a three branch system of government out of modern governing systems at the time. Democracy, Aristocracy and Monarchism were used as the basis for the division of power into the three institutions; Legislative Assembly, The Senate, and The Consuls. The Senate – Aristocracy The Senate was legendarily founded in the first days of Rome, 753B

Le Quebec Essay Example For Students

Le Quebec Essay Le Quebec et la Guadeloupe en ComparaisonLe Quebec et la Guadeloupe sont deux mondes differents qui sont unis par la langue francaise. Un se trouve au plein nord du continent americain, et lautre se trouve dans la mer Caribe dans les Antilles. Le Quebec a de temps froid la plupart de lan, en meme temps que la Guadeloupe est characterise par un climat tropique. Donc, cette distinction de climat donne deux types de vie vraiment differents. Par exemple, lhiver au Quebec consiste de la neige, la glace, et les temperatures bases. Et a cause de ce temps extreme, les Quebecois ont du sadapter a ses environs et le climat de cette region. Ils ont aussi cree des mots qui sont uniques a leur dialecte. Comme le mot, **motoneige**, qui a ete invente au Canada, est devenu mot quotidien aux mois dhiver. Les Quebecois portent des vetements lourds et chauds pour se proteger de linterperie. Mais cest un cas tout different en la Guadeloupe, les hivers semblent lete du Quebec. Il fait toujours beau a cette isle du Caribe, sauf quand il pleut. Il y a une difference qui fait la Guadeloupe unique, cest les ouragans Mais la plupart des temps, les Guadeloupeens shabillent en vetements legers et frais. Aussi ils portent des chapeaux pour se proteger des rayons du soleil. Lunique chose dont le Quebec et la Guadeloupe partagent, cest la langue francaise. On peut dire quils sont deux mondes completement differents qui ont des bonnes choses et aussi les mauvais comme les extremes dans leurs climats respectifs. Bibliography:

Marc Chagall free essay sample

Discuss how the environment and other influences, for example personal beliefs, have shaped the work of at least one artist you have studied this year. Refer to work done by this artist to substantiate your statements. Marc Chagall was a Russian/French artist who was born into a poor family of Hassidic Jews on the 7th July 1887. Throughout his working life he was based in Russia from 1906-1910, then he moved to France for four more years before moving back to Russia and Soviet Belarus for eight years. Chagall was strongly influenced, but not limited to, movements such as Cubism, Fauvism and Surrealism. These movements are demonstrated in his work through the geometric shapes, his use of colour and the seemingly random placement of people and objects in his works. Chagall described his work as, â€Å"†¦ extravagant art, a flaming vermillion, a blue soul flooding over my paintings. † Chagall’s childhood in the small country town of Vitebsk, Belarus was happy and is another influence for his artworks. We will write a custom essay sample on Marc Chagall or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Small provincial ghettos are presented in some way in many of his artworks. Chagall said that, â€Å"The soil that nourished the roots of my art was Vitebsk†. Many childhood memories are presented in his artworks. His religion is also another large influence fore Chagall, many of his paintings include Jewish symbolism and refer to Judaism. There were limited opportunities to study art in Vitebsk and after an argument with his father; he moved to St Petersburg to study, he lived quite a risky and independent life. Shortly after, he moved to Paris where he met friends, Robert and Sonia Delauney. They were very influential to his style- predominantly in Chagall’s use of colour and in his cubist technique. While living in the poverty areas of Paris, he lightened his palette and his use of colour became more harmonious and unified. This is the palette that creates the basis for some of his well known works such as â€Å"I and the Village† (1911), â€Å"The Green Violinist† (1923-24), and â€Å"Solitude† (1933). Chagall has managed to produce many great works of art throughout his life and was greatly influenced by his surroundings, childhood, friends and Judaic religion. In 1911, Chagall was living in the poverty area of La Ruche. This is where he created â€Å"I and the Village†, an artwork that is a dreamlike/surreal representation of Chagall’s childhood memories. This is a colourful and busy painting that has a subtle blend of organic and geometrical shapes within. The bright colours create interest as they are often contrasting with each other. For example, the green face against the red background. The colours are vivid and flat, with a minimal use of blending, this shows Chagall’s use of fauvism. The minimal use of blending also adds to the form of the painting, which is quite flat in most areas and the objects look two-dimensional. The radial balance created by the lines leading into the centre of the artwork draw a specific emphasis to the main focal points, that is, the green man and the goat. The man is wearing a pink hat, a beaded necklace with the sign of the cross on it, a purple and yellow shirt and a ring with the Star of David on it symbolising Judaism. The man is holding up a bushel of leaves and it appears as though he is presenting it to the goat. The goat is placed within the golden mean and it is a close up of its head. The goat is composed of many geometrical shapes. It is looking into the eyes of the man and the man is looking into the eyes of the goat. This could symbolise that the man has a strong connection with the goat or the village in which the goat belongs to. In the background of the reveals street of houses and buildings, some of which are upside down adding to the surrealist feel of the artwork. In front of the houses there are two people, a man who is holding a pick and a woman who is upside down. The last significant feature in the artwork is the woman milking a goat, in the face of the larger goat. All of these objects and people within the artwork look like tributes from Chagall’s memory of the rural village he grew up in. the lines of the geometrical shapes create unity. This is because of the circle in the middle of the artwork joining the man, the goat and the background. This artwork is a surreal representation of the town of Vitebsk where Chagall grew up. Chagall is trying to comment of the relationship of people with the land, which is demonstrated by the man looking at the goat as an equal and also by the woman milking a goat. As there are in many of Chagall’s works, there is a spiritual reference in this artwork. The goat and the Star of David are the symbolic references. The goat is a great symbol of sacrifice for the Jewish religion. The colours in the artwork are reminiscent of the circus or other flamboyant events. The man could represent the ringmaster. This could all show the way in which man lives in harmony with animals and the environment. The large circle in the middle of the page could symbolise the sun and the all the chaos surrounding it could show that the earth and everything on it is dependent on the sun for life. The bright colours could also symbolise the fake world, opposed to that of the world when Chagall grew up. In â€Å"The Green Violinist† (1923-24) we see a green man wearing a purple coat, which is composed of geometrical shapes. He is placed in the centre of the artwork and is standing on or floating in the air above a couple of houses playing a violin. The fact that he is the only object that is coloured brightly in secondary colours compared to the rest of the painting in neutral tones of browns and greys; the man is the main focal point. The geometric shapes of the purple coat are defined by the tonal changes, which reflect the suggested sunlight. In the background there is more houses and a man flies over the clouds above the houses. This adds to the dreamlike state of the painting. Chagall has used colour, shape, size, emphasis and balance to compose the artwork and communicate his ideas. The subject matter of the artwork is obvious as the colours are bright in contrast to the dull monotonous background. Also the subject matter has been placed in the centre of the artwork and makes most of the positive space. The symmetrical balance supports the harmony to the viewer’s eye. The cubist movement is evident through the geometrical shapes on the coat, the rectangles on the trousers and even in the circles that form the clouds in the sky. Fauvism is also represented by the colour of the man. Surrealism is illustrated through the proportion of the man in relation to the houses; he is larger than the houses and everything else around him. The dog in the bottom left corner is interested in the violinist, but also could be a vicious dog. The latter could also represent the persecution of the Jewish throughout Russia during the time period in which this artwork was painted. That fact that the violinist has been painted so vibrantly and differently to the background could also show that the Jews ‘did not fit in’ throughout Europe and also shows how they were singled out, even though they were not any different. It is evident that Chagall’s artworks in some way or another are connected to his hometown of Vitebsk. This artwork could symbolise the fearfulness of political changes that happened to the rural town of Vitebsk during the early 1900’s such as the change from the Tsarist rule (when Chagall was born) to the communist revolution that sent Russia into dismay. In Jewish villages the violinist is a significant character who plays at life changing ceremonies such as weddings, funerals, births, etc. therefore, the symbolic value of the violinist in this painting could be about the life hanging moments within the town. To stay true to ones character throughout the changes. This painting is a reflection of moving into the future and a recollection of Chagall’s Jewish upbringing. The 1930’s was the decade of the depression and also the peak for the Nazi’s. Chagall’s painting, â€Å"Solitude† (1933) represents the feeling of the Jews in this time in history. This artwork depicts a middle-aged man, who looks biblical and is dressed in a white headdress, is holding a scriptural scroll and is sitting next to a goat with a violin. Above them flies a white angel (God’s messenger) amidst the sinister looking smoky black clouds. These objects stand out, as they are all white contrasting against a dark grey background. there is a symmetrical balance in the artwork. The man and the goat are sitting on the grass outside of a village. This could mean they are not wanted inside the village – this shows the persecution of the Jews. The sacrificial goat is another strong symbol of the Jewish religion, in this painting it looks as though it is providing some form of hope and comfort to the man as it sits next to him in a loyal manner looking up at him. The name â€Å"Solitude† represents the cultural persecution of the Jews throughout Europe in 1933. Due to the Nazi rule, Jews were especially feeling hated in this era. This artwork demonstrates what the Nazi’s were doing to the whole Jewish race and is a political dissent. Through his use of the Torah, sacrificial goat, the historical rabbi figure and God’s messenger the angel, Chagall intentionally signifies the turn of Europe in the 1930’s. Ethnicity, religion and class are all aspects of this painting as the Jewish religion and ethnicity are shown to have no power in Europe as the Nazi’s attempted genocide. In 1933, Nazi general, Goebbels had ordered some of Chagall’s works to be publically burnt in Mannheim, Germany. In 1941, Chagall and his family moved to the United States of America to flee the Jewish persecution in Europe. 3 years later, his beloved wife Bella died. This stunted his creativity for a momentous amount of time. He soon regained his spirits and returned to France with his new wife Virginia Haggard and together they worked in theatre. Virginia left him, and then in 1952 Chagall met and married Valentine Brodski who encouraged him to get back to painting. In 1968 Russia held an exhibition to honour the works of Chagall. In 1985, Chagall reached his death while in France and was aged 97 years old. Chagall said, â€Å"In our life there is a single colour, as on an artists palette, which provides the meaning of life and art. It is the colour of love. † Chagall’s works were inspired by love, his childhood, the environment and his religion, which made his works so passionate and popular with the public. They were often influenced by the Cubists, Fauvist and Surrealist movements, which fitted so well with his motifs.

The Latest Advances In Drug Manipulations Of The I Essay Example For Students

The Latest Advances In Drug Manipulations Of The I Essay mmune SystemINTRODUCTIONIn order to provide a detailed analysis of recent pharmacological developments involving the human immune system, it is firstly necessary to introduce the innate and adaptive immune responses . Immunosuppressants and immunomodulators will be differentiated between and a selection of new and often experimental drugs belonging to each category will be provided. Specific drugs will be described including the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics involved with each type. The possible clinical uses will be alluded to along with details from recent research. INNATE IMMUNITYInnate immunity is the first line of defence and comprises physical (skin), biochemical (complement, lysozyme) and cellular (macrophages, neutrophils) mechanisms (Katzung, 1998). All these mechanisms are non-specific, anti-microbial agents which work in conjunction with adaptive immune responses to provide a more effective system (Downie et. al., 1995). ADAPTIVE IMMUNITYThe adaptive immune system is split into two mechanisms: humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity. A basic understanding of these concepts is necessary for the purpose of understanding the specific effects of different immunopharmacological agents. HUMORAL IMMUNITYHumoral or antibody-mediated immunity is associated with B-lymphocyte cells. Antigens are foreign molecules that initiate an immune response, they have inherent immunogenicity (Tortora Grabowski, 1996). Upon contact with an antigen, B-cells divide to produce a clone of plasma cells capable of the production of antibodies. Antibodies are immunoglobulins, modified blood proteins with a specific action against antigens. Five main sub-types of immunoglobulins have been identified of which IgG is the most abundant in bodily fluids (Hopkins, 1995). Several cells are known to initiate the process of plasma cell differentiation and are known collectively as antigen presenting cells (APCs) (Waller Renwick, 1994 ). We will write a custom essay on The Latest Advances In Drug Manipulations Of The I specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now LymphokinesThe antigen on the surface of the APC triggers TH-cells to produce hormone-like lymphokines (Lessof, 1993). Lymphokines are cytokines, regulators of the immune reactions which are produced by lymphocytes. Examples of these chemicals include interleukins, interferon and tumour necrosis factors. Their action involves the regulation of the proliferation, differentiation and activity of leukocytes (Dale et. al., 1994). The nature of lymphocyte stimulation will determine which class of immunoglobulin will be produced (Waller Renwick, 1994). The role of complement antibody-antigen complexesAntibodies have two distinct functions: to recognise and combine with an antigen, and to activate a defence mechanism for example by activating the complement sequence (Dale et. al., 1994). This sequence involves more than thirty proteins (Mollnes Harboe, 1996) and has the function of the destruction and removal of invading micro-organisms and subcellular debris and to promote clearance of antigen-antibody complexes (Dale et. al., 1994). These functions are achieved mainly via complements ability to attract leukocytes (Lessof, 1993). The interaction of antibody with specific antigen results in the formation of the antibody-antigen complex. This complex has several functions: for instance, to immobilise an antigen therefore preventing attack upon host cells, to block active toxic regions of particular bacteria, and to allow phagocytic attack. Memory cellsOnce the antigens have been destroyed the plasma cells disappear leaving a few as memory cells which enable a swift response upon second exposure to the antigen (Trounce, 1997). Memory cells are the basis of active immunisation against bacteria (Downie et. al., 1994). Humoral immunity is most efficient against antigens dissolved in body fluids, that is extracellular pathogens, primarily bacteria whereas cell-mediated immunity is most effective against intracellular pathogens such as viruses (Tortora ; Grabowski, 1996). CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITYCell-mediated immunity is mainly concerned with T-lymphocytes. It is this form of immunity that is thought to be responsible for tissue transplantation rejection (Tortora ; Grabowski, 1996). T-cells possess receptors upon their surface which recognise antigens, these receptors are similar to the antibodies released by B-cells. Upon contact with an antigen, T-cells produce memory and effector cells as do the B-cells. However, T-cells produce a variety of effector cells (Downie et. Al., 1995). TC-cells ; TH-cells The cells produced are mainly Cytotoxic cells (TC-Cells or CD8+) or Helper cells (TH-cells, or CD4+). TC-cells recognise and destroy virally infected host cells, hence they are also known as killer-cells (Trounce, 1997). It is also thought that cancerous cells can be destroyed by the same mechanism (Dale et. al. ,1994). TH-cells release lymphokines which activate local macrophages (Waller ; Renwick, 1994). Meaning big eaters macrophages engulf micro-organisms and secrete lysosomal enzymes, complement components and some lymphokines (Dale et, al., 1994). IMMUNOSUPPRESSION IMMUNOMODULATIONBy providing an overview of the adaptive immune responses it becomes apparent that two areas of pharmacological enquiry are of interest: immunosuppression and immunomodulation. The former concept involves developing agents that suppress the immune responses. This area is important in the treatment of organ and tissue transplant rejection and also the treatment for certain diseases resulting from immune system irregularities. The latter area involves agents that augment or alter certain components of the immune system and are therefore important in cancer and AIDS management (Katzung, 1998). NEW IMMUNOSUPPRESSANTSThe prototype immunosuppressant, cyclosporine was discovered in the 1970s Almost three decades later there is much investigation into the development of novel more effective immunosuppressive drugs (Dale et. al., 1994). Traditionally immunosuppressants have been shown to be important in prolonging the life of transplanted organs. However, purely by their nature they greatly weaken the patients defence mechanism and therefore increase the risk of infection by opportunistic pathogens (Downie et. al., 1995). Traditional thinking advocates these drugs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases where the immune system produces antibodies against various self tissues (Trounce, 1997). However, new approaches (to be discussed later) prefer the use of immunomodulators to treat these disorders. Unfortunately many immunosuppressants are non-specific and lead to therapeutic inconsistencies that produce a wide range of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variations between diff erent individuals (Kahan, 1999). Thus the latest drugs are being developed with more specificity in mind. A selection of these new drugs including mycophenalate mofetil, thalidomide, sirolimus and 15-deoxyspregualin, will be provided and their mechanisms of action, when understood, described. Mycophenolate mofetilMycophenolate Mofetil (MM) is a newly developed immunosuppressant which has been proven to be promising in the management of organ transplantation. Introduced in 1997, MM has been mainly utilised in kidney transplantation treatments in conjunction with cyclosporine and corticosteroids (Hoffman Jones-Reeder, 1998). When used in the combination described, MM has substantially reduced the incidence of kidney rejection within the first six months following transplantation (Nutley, 1995). This new drug has also been the subject of studies involving liver transplantation where it proved to reduce the incidence of rejection when combined with tacrolimus and steroids without increasing the risk of secondary infections (Jain et. al., 1997). In comparative trials with azathioprine, MM has proved to be more selective and effectively decreases episodes of rejection in renal transplant patients (Barron, 1996). In animal studies MM has been used successfully for heart and pan creatic cell transplantation but further trials are needed to prove efficacy before use on human patients. (Saltiel, 1994). Other recent studies involve the use of MM to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (Dureza et. al., 1999). Isolated from the mould penicillum glaucum (Katzung, 1998), MM, brand name cellcept, has greatly improved the ratio of immunosuppressive activity versus side effects (Hoffman Jones-Reeder, 1998). Administered orally, MM is hydrolysed to the active metabolite mycophenolic acid in the liver and gastro-intestinal tract and excreted by the kidney in urine. (Barron, 1996). By inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis via only the de nova pathway, MM can selectively inhibit T and B-cell activity (Saltiel, 1994). The result of this action leads to the prevention of T and B-cell proliferation, the inhibition of antibody formation, and the reduction of leukocyte migration to inflammatory sites common in graft rejection. .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .postImageUrl , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:hover , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:visited , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:active { border:0!important; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:active , .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u02a677be4e8f657e20d3ba3c25e8c6be:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Alice's Journey to Find Her Identity EssayThe adverse effects associated with MM are mainly gastro-intestinal and include nausea, diarrhoea and vomiting (Barron, 1996) thus use in patients with known gastro-intestinal complaints should be carefully considered. As with all immunosuppressants, there may be an increased risk of secondary infection but MM does not appear to be a greater threat in this regard compared to the older more conventional drugs. It is as yet unknown if MM may be teratogenic in humans as it has been in some animal studies thus use in pregnancy is ill advised unless the potential benefit to the mother outweighs the risk to the unborn child (Barron, 1996 ). It has also been noted that there is an increased risk of the development of lymphoma and other malignancies with MM treatment which is again common with many of the immunosuppressants (Nutley, 1995). This new drug certainly appears to present less side-effects when compared to traditional immunosuppressive agents. The major drawback associated with MM is the high cost: almost five times that of the traditional immunosuppressant azathioprine. However, considering that one half of kidney transplant patients experience acute episodes of rejection during the first year after transplantation (Nutley, 1995) it would appear that the cost could be well spent in terms of the saving of lives and prevention of suffering. 15-deoxyspergualin15-Deoxyspergualin (DSG) is isolated from bacillus laterosporus and has been successful in the prevention of renal transplant rejection, and may also be beneficial in heart and pancreatic transplantations (Katzung, 1998). Recent studies have shown DSG to have a unique ability among immunosuppressive drugs to reduce long-term survival and functional tolerance of discordant islet xenografts (Thomas et. al., 1995). The potential of DSG as a treatment for autoimmune diseases is also being investigated (Tepper et. al., 1995). Indeed, DSG is proving more effective than tacrolimus (Grebenau, 1999) and less toxic than aziathropine (Thomas, 1995). The mechanisms of action are not entirely understood but appear to result from the suppression of both the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses (Tepper et. al., 1995). It appears that this new drug needs further rigorous testing but possible future applications particularly in xenografts seem to be encouraging. SirolimusSirolimus (rapamycin) is relatively similar to the more traditional immunosuppressants: tacrolimus and cyclosporine. However, it is much more potent and has distinct uses in the management of kidney and heart allografts (Katzung, 1998). Again, the possibilities of sirolimus as treatment for autoimmune diseases is currently being investigated (Grebenau, 1999) and the drug is currently in phase three trials. The mechanism of action is through cytokine signals which are required for T-cell proliferation (Valantine Schroeder, 1995), that is, Sirolimus acts as a T-cell inhibitor when used in combination with cyclosporine and steroids (Bertolatus, 2000). Major side effects include increased blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, leukopenia (decreased white blood cell count) and thrombocytopeania (decreased platelet count) (Kelly, et. al., 1997). ThalidomideThalidomide has a problematic history as it produced severe teratogenic effects when used to alleviate diarrhoea and nausea in pregnant women. However, it has since emerged as an immunosuppressant particularly useful in treatments to prevent lung transplant rejection (Katzung, 1998). Thalidomide may also prove beneficial in the treatment of HIV patients particularly those suffering from chronic weight loss as it increases the immune chemical, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (Kahan, 1999).However, mechanisms of action are not further understood and may involve a change of T-cell response to antigens (Katzung, 1998). Treatment of leukaemia is another area of possible thalidomide use (Grebenau, 1999). Obviously, this drug must not be used in the treatment of pregnant women and may also cause side-effects such as drowsiness and skin rashes (Kahan, 1999). Antibodies as immunosuppressantsMilstein and Kohler increased the pharmacological use of antibodies as immunosuppressants via hybridoma technology. This concept involves the fusing of antibody-forming and plasmacytoma cells to produce the required antibody for cloning (Katzung, 1998). The implications of such technology are far-reaching as specificity will be greatly increased using these monoclonal antibodies. As yet studies into treatments for multiple sclerosis using this technology have been inconclusive but appear to be fraught with unintended side effects (Panitch, 1996). Antilymphocyte antibodies have been utilised early after organ transplantation and have had beneficial short term effects but the long term outcomes have been disappointing (Valantine ; Schroeder, 1995). IMMUNOMODULATIONThe immunomodulation branch of pharmacology involves boosting the immune system rather than suppressing it, by using agents to augment the immune response. The potential uses of immunomodulation include the treatment of immunodeficiency disorders, chronic infectious diseases, cancer and AIDS (Katzung 1998). Many cancer patients do not die directly from their cancer but from a secondary infection. It has also been discovered that in the United States of America sixty-five million people suffer from a dysfunctional immune system which can lead to chronic viral infections, AIDS, cancer and autoimmune diseases (Beardsley, 1997)Immmunomodulation ; autoimmune diseaseTraditionally, it has been thought that stimulating the immune system will be harmful for sufferers of autoimmune disorders as it will exacerbate the bodys attack upon self cells. However, recent research suggests that autoimmune diseases maybe due to the dysregulation of the immune system, and that poor thymus functioning results in T4Helper cells losing control of humoral immunity so that antibodies lose their specificity and attack host cells (Beardsley, 1997). Thus immunomodulation in this area could be highly effective. It must be stated that this is merely a theory and that extensive testing is still needed in this area before such drugs can be used safely to treat these disorders. It would appear that immunomodulation is a new and exciting area to be explored with many potential benefits. A selection of these new drugs including levamisole, thymic peptides, roquinimex, and cyclophosphamide will be described in more detail. LevamisoleLevamisole (eramisole) is an immunomodulating agent administered orally with the effect of increasing the number of T-cells. It has been shown to be effective in the treatment of Hodgkins disease, and is approved by the FDA for the treatment of colorectal cancer after surgery. Recently, levamisole has been tested in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with some efficacy. The side effects involved include mild nausea, stomach pain, dizziness, headache and fatigue (Katzung, 1998). It would appear that there is insufficient research concerning this drug, thus the likelihood that it will be marketed for clinical use in the near future is markedly reduced. Thymosin other thymic peptidesThymic activity is critical to T cell maturation, only mature cells can effectively combat cancer cells and infectious agents. Thymosin conveys specificity to immature lymphoid stem cells and therefore increases the number of active T-cells (Katzung, 1998). However, it has not been yet approved by the FDA (Beardsley, 1997) despite its successes in trials in treatment of diseases of T-cell deficiency such as DiGeorges syndrome (Katzung, 1998). Thymic protein A has proved beneficial in the treatment of hepatitis C, cancer and certain immune disorders via the stimulation of the cell mediated immune system (Beardsley, 1997). Thymopentin and Thymic humoral factor have also been used to treat AIDS as well as cancer and hepatitis. However, other trials suggest that thymosin may stimulate the pituitary-adrenal system, resulting in an increase of serum corticosteroids and the decrease of thymic hormone production. Therefore the impairment of the immune functioni ng will result from thymic treatments rather than the intended increase of the immune response (Bard et. al., 1990) Such new immunomodulators certainly need extensive research before a more suitable form can be identified. CyclophosphamideCyclophosphamide (cytoxan, neosar) is traditionally an immunosuppressant used to suppress a variety of humoral and cell-mediated immune functions (Dale et. al., 1994). However, new developments have proved the immunomodulating function of the drug. Low doses given prior to immunisation with a tumour vaccine can augment the immune response (Katzung, 1998). As such, cyclophosphamide can be used to treat Hodgkins disease, lymphomas, leukemias and other tumours. Rheumatoid arthritis can also be treated by the immunomodulating features of this drug which can be achieved at higher doses than are necessary for immunosuppression (Shorthouse, 1996). Recently, this drug has been used in trials to treat chronic -progressive multiple sclerosis. However, the be nefits proved to be inadequate in balance with the side-effects which included hair loss, fever, oral ulcers (Panitch, 1996), nausea, vomiting, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia and anorexia (Shorthouse, 1996). Teratogenic effects make the drug unsuitable for pregnant or breast feeding women and long term toxicities include bladder cancer and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia (Panitsh, 1996). In conclusion it appears cyclophosphamide may have some benefit in short-term immunomodulation, particularly as a cytotoxic agent, but long term, high doses will produce a plethora of side effects. .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .postImageUrl , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:hover , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:visited , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:active { border:0!important; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:active , .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u497a498383f6eb84b93ea35fd8c41c4b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Observation Report of A Child At Elementary School EssayTHC marijuanaTrials in the United States of America in 1995 have tested the use of marijuana in immunomodulation. THC is the component of interest in marijuana which has been demonstrated to enhance the production and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from macrophages. The study has also found impairment of immunological functions in persistent marijuana smokers. However, the conclusion is that THC is an excellent tool for studying the mechanisms of immunomodulation, especially altered susceptibility to microbial infection (Friedman et. al., 1995) but further intensive study is needed. RoquinimexRoquinimex (linomide) is not an immunosuppressant, it activates lymphocyte and natural killer cells, therefore acting as an immunomodulator (Panitch, 1996). By stimulating a variety of B and T-cell functions it has been used to treat acute and chronic relapsing multiple sclerosis, with a marked reduction in relapses, disease activity and progression (Katzung, 1998). Although the mechanisms of action themselves are not fully understood it is thought that via activating T-cells these drugs stimulates the production of regulatory cytokines that suppress inflammation and prevent myelin deterioration (Panitch, 1996). Trials in prostate tumour treatment have proved that roquinimex is the most effective drug with a sixty-nine percent inhibition of tumour growth (Joseph ; Isaccs, 1998). Thus roquinimex is emerging as a promising new treatment for cancer and multiple sclerosis. CONCLUSIONTo conclude, recent literature suggests that research into immunosuppression is more wide spread than in the area of immunomodulation. This newer concept certainly needs further investigation but has many potential benefits especially in the treatment of AIDS. Many other agents such as new vaccines and alternatives to antibiotics are being developed, unfortunately due to certain constraints they are beyond the scope of this review. As understanding of natural immune mechanisms is increased, further manipulation of the immune system will be possible. As the millennium begins it appears that the future of immunopharmacology is promising. REFERENCESBard, D.R; Knight, C.G. ; Page-Thomas, D.P. (1990) A Chelating Derivative of Alpha-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone As A Potential Imaging Agent For Malignant Melanoma AT ;a href=http://www.Biosyna.com/patent.htm;http://www.Biosyna.com/patent.htmBarron, K. (1996) Mycophenalate Mofetil (Cellcept) A New Immunosuppressant Agent AT ;a href=http://dacc.bsd.uchicago.edu/drug/bulletins/No196.html;http://dacc.bsd.uchicago.edu/drug/bulletins/No19 6.htmlBeardsley, T. R; Pierschbacher, M. ; Wetzel, G.D. (1997) Thymic Protein A: Its Development May Signal A New Tool For Rejuvenating Immune Function AT ;a href=http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag97/july_report97.html;http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag97/july_report97.htmlBertolatus, A. (2000) Renal Transplant Service: Research Protocol Summary: Sirolimus (rapamycin) Liquid Versus Solid Tablets Study AT ;a href=http://www.vh.org/Welcome/U/HCMedDepts/Surgery/OrganTrans/Sirolimus.html;http://www.vh.org/Welcome/U/HCMedDepts/Surgery/OrganTrans/Sirolimus.htmlDale, M.M; Foreman, J.C. ; Fan, T.D. (1994) Textbook of Immunoppharmacology (3rd ed.) Blackwell Scientific: OxfordDownie, G; MacKenzie, J. ; Williams, A. (1995) Pharmacology ; Drug Management for Nurses. Churchill Livingstone: EdinburghDureza, P; Appelbooma, T; Piraa, C; Stordeurb, P; Vrayb, B. ; Goldmanb, M. (1999) Anti-inflammatory Properties of Mycophenalate Mofetil In Murine Endotoxemia: Inhibition of TNF-a ; Upregulation of IL-10 Rel ease IN nternational Journal of Immunopharmacology Vol.21, Issue 9, pp581-587 AT ;a href=http://www.elsevier.com.80/inca/publications/store/5/1/8/?menu=contlabel=Keyword;http://www.elsevier.com.80/inca/publications/store/5/1/8/?menu=cont;label=KeywordFriedman, H; Klun, T.W; Newton, C. ; Daaka, Y. (1995) Research: Marijuana, Receptors ; Immunomodulation AT ;a href=http://www.sarnia.com/groups/antidrug/rltychck/receptors.html;http://www.sarnia.com/groups/antidrug/rltychck/receptors.htmlGrebenau, M. (1999) Advances in Transplant ; Immunosuppressant Drugs AT ;a href=http://www.armnet.com/mssm/sy283files/moran_p.html;http://www.armnet.com/mssm/sy283files/moran_p.htmlHoffmann, R.L. ; Jones-Reeder, S. (1998) Mycophenalate Mofetil (cellcept): The Newest Immunosuppressant INCritical Care Nurse Vol. 18, No. 3, June 1998, pp50-57Hopkins, S.J. (1995) Drugs ; Pharmacology for Nurses (12th ed.) Churchill Livingstone: EdinburghJain, A.B; Fung, J.J; Hamad, I; Rakein, J; Demetris, J; McMichael, J; I watsuki, S. ; Starzl, T.E. (1997) Prospective Randomised Trial of Tacrolimus ; Prednisone versus Tacrolimus, Prednisone ; Mycophenalte Mofetil in Primary Adult Liver Transplant Recipients AT ;a href=http://www.astp.org/abstracts97/ph179260.htm;http://www.astp.org/abstracts97/ph179260.htmJoseph, I.B.J.K ; Isaccs, J.T. (1998) Roquinimex Slows Prostate Tumor Growth Via Selective Inhibition of Macrophage Function AT ;a href=http://www.Slipnet/mcdavis/database/angiol82.htm;http://www.Slipnet/mcdavis/database/angiol82.htmKahan, B. (1999) The Use of Thalidomide for Treating AIDS Virus AT ;a href=http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/2953/thalidomide.html;http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/2953/thalidomide.htmlKatzung, B. G. (Ed) (1998) Basic ; Clinical Pharmacology (7th ed.) Appleton ; Lange: StanfordKelly, P.A; Gruber, S.A; Behbod, F. ; Kahan, B.D. (1997) Sirolimus, A New, Potent Immunosuppressive Agent AT ;a href=http://www,accp.com/pharmacotherapy/Abs17-6/1148.htm;htt p://www,accp.com/pharmacotherapy/Abs17-6/1148.htmLessof, M.H. (1993) Basic Components of the Immune System INMedicine International vol. 21, 1 Jan, 1993, pp1-5Mollnes, E. ; Harboe, M. (1996) Recent Advances in Clinical Immunology IN British Medical Journal 312: pp1465-1469Nutley, N.J. (1995) Press Release: New Agent to Prevent Kidney Transplant Rejection Now Available AT ;a href=http://www.transweb.org/news/press/archive/pr_cellcept.html;http://www.transweb.org/news/press/archive/pr_cellcept.htmlPanitch, H.S. (1996) Investigational Drug Therapies for Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis AT ;a href=http://www.msnews.org/weinrebi.htm;http://www.msnews.org/weinrebi.htmSaltiel, E. (1994) New Immunosuppressive Drugs: Focus On Mycophenolate Mofetil AT ;a href=http://www.centerspan.org/pubs/news/sp94h.htm;http://www.centerspan.org/pubs/news/sp94h.htmShorthouse, R. (1996) Cyclophosphamide (cytoxan, neosar) AT ;a href=http://www.aidsinfonyc.org/network/access/drugs/cyclop.html;http://www.aidsinfo nyc.org/network/access/drugs/cyclop.htmlTepper, M.A; Nadler, S.G; Esselstyn, J.M. ; Sterbenz, K.G. (1995) Deoxyspergualin Inhibits Kappa Light Chain Expression in 707/3 Pre-B Cells by Blocking Lipopolysaccharide-induced NT-Kappa_Beta Activation IN Journal of Immunology Vol.155, No.05, pp2427-2436. Thomas, F; Pittman, K; Ljung, T. ; Cekada, E. (1995) Deoxyspergualin is a Unique Immunosuppressive Agent With Selective Utility in Inducing Intolerance to Pancreas Islet Xenografts. AT ;a href=http://www.insulinfree.org/immunabstracts/ecarolin2.htm;http://www.insulinfree.org/immunabstracts/ecarolin2.htmTortora, G.J. ; Grabowski, S.R. (1996) Principles of Anatomy ; Physiology (8th ed.) Harper Collins: New YorkTrounce, J. (1997) Clinical Pharmacology For Nurses (15th ed.) Churchill Livingstone: EdinburghValantine, H.A; Schroeder, J.S. (1995) Ten Recent Advances in Cardiac Transplantation AT ;a href=http://www.nejm.org/content/1995/0333/0010/0660.asp;http://www.nejm.org/content/1995/0333/0010/0660.aspWaller, D. ; Renwick, A. (1994) Principles of Medical Pharmacology. Bailliere Tindall: LondonBIBLIOGRAPHYBirchall, N; Orlow, S.G; Kupper, T. ; Pawelek, J. (1991) Interactions Between Ultraviolet Light ; Interleukin-1 On MSH Binding in Both Mouse Melanoma ; human Squamous Carcinoma Cells AT ;a href=http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htm;http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htmBrazelton, T.R; Shorthouse, R; Huang, X. ; Morris, R.F. (1997) Efficacy of Immunosuppressive Agents Corresponds to their Ability to Maintain Graft Donor Phenotype in a Model of Chronic Lung Rejection :a Novel Mechanism of Immunosuppressive Drug Action? AT ;a href=http://www.astp.org/abstracts97/ph556623.htm;http://www.astp.org/abstracts97/ph556623.htmDuvaux-Miret, O; Stefano, G.B; Smith, E.M; Dissous, C. ; Capron, A. (1992) Immunosuppression In The Definitive ; Intermediate Hosts of the Human Parasite Schistosoma Mansoni by Release of Immunoactive Neuropeptides AT ;a href=http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htm;http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htmGhanem, G; Verstegen, J; Libert, A; Arnould, R. ; Lejeune, F. (1989) Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Immunoreactivity in Human Melanoma Metastases Extracts AT ;a href=http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htm;http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htmGore, M. ; Riches, P. (Eds) (1996) Im munotherapy in Cancer. Wiley: ChichesterHolman, M.J; Ahsan, N; Dhillon, S; OBrien, B. Yang, H.C. (1997) A Randomised, Prospective, Comparative Study of Tacrolimus Mycophenalate Mofetil Neoral Mycophenalate Mofetil in Kidney Transplantation AT a href=http://www.a-s-t.org/abstract97/ph281378.htmhttp://www.a-s-t.org/abstract97/ph281378.htmJoyce, D. Pederson, K. (1998) Immunopharmacology: Proposed Honours Prospects for 1998 AT a href=http://www.pharm.uwa.edu.au/aussie/honours/himmun.htmlhttp://www.pharm.uwa.edu.au/aussie/honours/himmun.htmlKahan, B. D. (1998) History of Immunosuppression AT a href=http://surgery.uth.tmc.edu/organ_transplant/historyimmu.htmlhttp://surgery.uth.tmc.edu/organ_transplant/historyimmu.htmlNijkamp, F.P. Parnham, M. J. (1999) Principles of Immunopharmacology AT a href=http://www.springer_ny.com/catalog/np/mar99np/3-7643-5780-0.htmlhttp://www.springer_ny.com/catalog/np/mar99np/3-7643-5780-0.htmlSchultze, J. Johnson, P. (1999) A Stimulating New Target for C ancer Immunotherapy IN The Lancet vol. 354, Oct. 9, 1999, pp1225-1226Stadtlander Drug Distribution Co. Inc. (1998) Investigational Immunosuppressants for Transplantation AT a href=http://www.stadtlander.com/feature/immunosuppren.htmlhttp://www.stadtlander.com/feature/immunosuppren.htmlSwope, V.B; Abel-Malek, Z; Kassem, L. M. Nordlund, J.J. (1991) Interleukins 1 Alpha 6 Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha are Paracrine Inhibitors of Human Melanocyte Proliferation Melanogenesis AT a href=http://www.biosyna.com/patent.htmhttp://www.biosyna.com/patent.htm

Management of Operations Supply Chain Management in Nintendo

Management of Operations Supply Chain Management in Nintendo Executive Summary In every organization operations management processes play a pivotal role in promoting the effectiveness of every activity in the firm. This study gives an analysis of the management operations in Nintendo. This is a company which is involved in the manufacture and sale of entertainment products all over the world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Management of Operations: Supply Chain Management in Nintendo specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The company’s effective operations management has significantly contributed to its success. In this case, the study will concentrate particularly on the supply chain operations involved in the company. This study begins with a brief overview of the company in question. This is followed by a critical analysis of the supply chain processes involved in the company. Finally, the study concentrates on the literature on the topic. Introduction Operations manageme nt refers to the management process associated with effective management of the activities which are involved in the production of goods and services in an organization. In every organization, the operations management managers play a very important role in facilitating the effectiveness of the organization. The major roles in operations management involve management and designing business processes and activities that are involved in production of the goods and services. In addition, operations management is also involved in management of materials, information, people and all the equipments which a business needs in production and delivering of the goods and services. One of the main operations aspects is the supply chain management. Supply chain management can be viewed as the network of the facilities and distribution options that are involved in the material procurement processes, conversion of the same to finished goods as well as distribution of these products in the market s o as to reach the customers at the right time, place, and form. In every organisation, the effectiveness of the supply chain management plays a very important role in facilitating the success of an organization. Strategic Goals and Objectives Nintendo has several objectives on which its future success is based. One of the main objectives of the company in the chain management is to reach as many people as possible in the near future without using the middle men in these operations. The company also intends to saturate its market with distribution centres where customers will be able to access the products without necessarily going through the middlemen. The last main objective of the company is to supply in the market price competitive products.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Company Overview Nintendo is one of the most successful multinational companies involved in the manufacture and sale of the entertainment products. Nintendo Company was founded by Yamauchi in 1889. Since then, this company has been dealing with manufacturing and marketing of entertainment products (Cohen 2009: 57). Nintendo is the longest running company in the industry of video game market (Anonymous, not dated par 2). The company has also dominated the market for a long period.  The company covers a significant market area in the world. It plays a significant role in maintaining economic stability. This is through employment creation and philanthropic activities. Over the past, this company has recorded a recommendable performance in terms of return. For instance, the company recorded revenue of 9.9 % increase in the year 2009 (Research Markets 2010: par 3). This was equivalent to an increase of 8.5% in profits. Nintendo’s Supply Chain As already noted, the supply chain is very important in any organization. Nintendo has a clear supply chain which has contrib uted to the company’s success. The organization of the supply chain operations plays a pivotal role in determining the success of an organization. Although the company has not exhaustively covered the global market, it has several centres in different countries which act as the centres of distribution in various countries. In America, the distribution centre is located in the North Bend (Jeff 2010, par 2). This is one of the most successful distribution centres for the company. The facility has been installed with the modern technology equipments, which has significantly increased its efficiency. Production activities take place at Japan after which the products are passed to various distribution centres. It is from these centres where the products are distributed to various parts to reach the customers.  In the chain distribution, the company’s distribution centres have the responsibility of ensuring that there is no variation between the orders and inventories. In other words, the distribution plays a major role in prediction of demand so that there is no excess or shortage in the supply chain. Wrong demand prediction can cause a company great losses through stock accumulation. Shortages can also lead to loss of customers.  Due to the company’s modernized distribution centres, it has been awarded as the best ware house of the year (Jeff, 2010: par 5). The company was recognized as one of the best performing in terms of customer satisfaction and services.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Management of Operations: Supply Chain Management in Nintendo specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This was characterized by high level of communication which eased the interaction between the customers and the suppliers. This ensured a clear supply chain process, which led to maximum consumer satisfaction. Over the past, the company has made several changes in the distribution process in an attempt to improve its services to the public. The Ordering Process The ordering process at Nintendo has improved drastically over the past. The company has adopted an automation of the ordering process. The automation of the ordering process in particular has increased the efficiency of the ordering process, which has enormously reduced the ordering costs. Nintendo America is one of the company’s centres which have recorded a recommendable performance in this field. This ware house has been completely automated, a thing that has eliminated the paperwork in the ordering process hence increasing the level of efficiency (Jeff 2010, par 6). Internet in Supply Chain In the contemporary business world, the internet has played a pivotal role in promoting the effectiveness of operations. Nintendo has integrated internet technology in the distribution chain. This has significantly contributed to improvement of the supply chain. Integration of internet in the supply chain operation s has a significant implication in reducing inventory requirements. Embracing the modern technology and internet in the supply has led to improvement of the supply chain in the company through various ways. First, the company has an opportunity to build a strong collaboration between the company and the members in the channel. We will also be able to reach our customers directly by eliminating the middlemen. Market Analysis Over the past, this company has been struggling to extend its services as wide as possible. One of the major steps which this company has ever taken in its efforts to diversify its market was in 1980 when it developed new markets for its products in United States. At the United States, the company launched subsidiary Nintendo of America Inc. in New York where the company recorded large sales.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Meanwhile, the company made another innovation by introducing a portable video game (Jorg: 2029, 2009). This boosted the rate of development of its new market in U.S. From this point, Nintendo Company continued to expand in the global market, the fact which encouraged the company to invent more in the entertainment industry. Weaknesses in the Supply Chain Although the company has recorded a recommendable performance in terms of innovativeness, it has failed to satisfy its market. For instance, people have been complaining of shortages of Wii in some parts of the world. Although it has recorded several achievements, the company has some areas of weaknesses. These weaknesses have to some extent affected the company’s efforts to move forward. The first weakness of the company is its poor performance in handling online games where the competitors have recorded a better performance (Nick, 2010). This has undermined the reputation of the company in this field. We will try to improv e our supply chain efficiency on a continuous basis. We will collaborate with our suppliers to design new products and to reduce the time it takes to get new products into the production.  One of the main threats of the company is the presence of their competitors. In 1994, Sony’s entry in the market posed a great threat to our company. Soon after its entry into the market, Sony introduced a console which was more advanced than ours. This product posed a threat to the survival of our product in this field. Achievements of Nintendo in the Supply Chain Operations One of the main strengths of this company is its innovativeness (Popular Science, 2004, par 3). Over the past, the company has managed to eliminate monotony through frequent introduction of new products in the market. For instance, we recorded tremendous increase in sales after introducing Wii in the market. This high rate of innovations has been facilitated by intensive research. Our company has enjoyed various thin gs in the video games market over the past. One of the main opportunities of our company is its ability to detecting business opportunities (Diana: 56, 2010). For instance, rather than production of video games only, the company once attempted to conduct a taxi business and a hotel. The company pays much attention on new opportunities. This has contributed significantly to the success of the company.  We as a company has realized the necessity of paying more attention to the part of the population which does not use pour games. This opportunity has helped the company to increase the total sales significantly. Many companies have been making the mistake of overemphasizing on the maintenance of existing customers but paying little attention in the efforts to find new customers. In other words, our company has done enormously well in terms of market expansion. This attribute has played a major role in defeating our competitors. Literature Review The supply chain can be seen as a seri es of cycles which involves communication between the buyer and the seller (Chopra Meindl, not dated: par 7). The supply chain can be viewed in terms of their main processes. These include the Customer order cycle, Replenishment cycle, and the Manufacturing cycle. In the contemporary business world, the supply chain operations have undergone significant changes through technological developments. However, several companies have dipped into problems by adopting the new technology without making necessary arrangements, the fact which has made them to incur huge losses (Epiq, 2010: par 2). For instance, several companies have ended up spending more buy adoption of some of the procurement software due to ignorance (Epiq, 2010: par 2). However, these negative impacts can be overcome by adoption of these new methods slowly rather than just abruptly. This will enable an organization to make the necessary changes. A cycle view is very important while viewing the company’s supply cha in operations. The cycle view of the company’s supply chain helps an organization to define the processes involved in production and the owners of each process (Anonymous, 2011: par 9). The processes involved in the customer order cycle engrosses the customer arrival among others. Customer arrival implies that the customer reaches the location where they can access the choices available. In this case, the customer makes the necessary choice of the products they want. For Nintendo, this step involves selection of the entertainment product which is available from the distribution centres. In the customer order entry process, the customer informs the seller of the goods they want to purchase. This process also involves allocation of the products to the consumers. In case of the Nintendo Company, the customers receive the entertainment products from the distribution centres depending on what they have ordered and their location. The last step in this process is customer order rec eiving. It involves the delivery of the product to the customer. The cycle view of the company’s supply chain is very important especially when making decisions concerning the operations of an organization. However, this process may need some changes depending on the changes in the supply chain. For instance, the company is supposed to make appropriate changes in case the level of demand increases in order to satisfy new demand. Overview of the Models of Supply Chain Management Level one of the Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) model, involves the planning and management of demand and supply. At this level, this company establishes the relationship between the resources and what is required. This aims at finding whether the two are equal. This helps in planning the demand and supply chain. This also includes management of the business rules. For instance, the increase in the demand in this company will disturb the equilibrium between the resources and demand. Demand wi ll exceed the resources. In some cases, the company may be required to make changes in terms of its product design and sales and support. For instance, more efficient ways may be employed in the sales support. This increases the ability of the organization to deliver more products within a short time. This will help in meeting the increased level of demand. The SCOR framework focuses on the implementation of the cross-sectional processes in the supply chain management (Lambert, 2008: 313). DCOR model on the other hand involves research, design, integrate and amend. DCOR concentrates on the organization of the operational steps for the product development (Lambert, 2008: 313). This contributes towards the provision of quality competitive goods in the market. Supply Chain and the Company’s Competitive Advantage The supply chain operations have significantly helped Nintendo in developing its competitiveness. Through the use of the modern technology, the company has managed to re duce the expenses involved in the ordering process. When paperwork is reduced in the transaction, this saves a lot of time and financial cost reduces. This has significantly helped the company in reducing the overall operational expenses.  Through clear supply management operations, the company has also managed to satisfy its customers. This has developed a competitive advantage over the other companies which has not adopted the necessary technology on their operations. Nintendo has also maintained a high level of innovation in its production operations. This has helped the company in maintaining a high level of performance. Conclusion From the above discussion, it can clearly be seen that the operations management plays a pivotal role in every organization. The success of every activity in an organization depends on the effectiveness of the operations involved. The success of any organization will largely be determined by the effectiveness of the operations management involved. A s already seen, one of the most important operations management operations in an organization is the supply chain management. However, the company still has some room for improvement on its operations involved in its supply chain operations. The company can improve its level of technology in various fields. For instance, it can also embrace the recent technological developments to improve production as well as the supply operations. These include reduction of the paperwork by computerizing the process of sending orders. This can significantly contribute to maintaining high level of performance in its operations. Reference List Anonymous. Not dated. Nintendo: Company Profile. [Online] Available at: http: //wii.nintendolife.com/companies/Nintendo. Anonymous, 2011. Supply Chain Management. [Online] Available at: scribd.com/doc/13821319/Notes-on-Supply-Chain-Management. Chopra, S. and Meindl, P. Not dated. Supply Chain Management. [Online] Available at: princesoft.ro/wiki.aspx?title=sup ply%20chain%20management . Cohen, D. 2009. Classic Video Games Blog. [Online] Available at: http://classicgames.about.com/b/2009/01/20/nintendos-founder-fusajiro-yamauchi-and-375-years-of-breaking-records.htm. Diana, D. 2010. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically. Netherlands: Springer Epiq. 2010. Supply Chain Operations. [Online] Available at: http: //www.epiqtech.com/supply_chain-Operations.htm. Jeff, H. 2010. Supply chain update: state-of-the-art direct distribution at Nintendo of America. [Online] Available at: bus.wisc.edu/grainger/newsletter/pdfs/may2001.pdf. Jà ¶rg, Z. 2009. Wii Innovate How Nintendo Created a New Market Through the Strategic Innovation Wii. Germany: GRIN Verlag. Lambert, D. 2008. Supply chain management: processes, partnerships, performance. USA: Supply Chain Management Inst. Nick, S. 2010. Nintendos Online Weakness Is a Big Turn-Off for Developers. [Online] Available at: businessinsider.com/nintendos-online-weakness- is-a-big- turn-off-for-developers-2010-1. Popular Science, 2004. Top 100 tech innovations 2004, Vol. 265, No. 6, ISSN 0161-7370, Bonnier Corporation. [Online] Available at: https://books.google.com/books?id=fwAAAAAAMBAJdq=Weaknesses:+Nintendo+Co.,+Ltd.source=gbs_navlinks_s. Research and Markets, 2010. Nintendo co., ltd. -SWOT analysis. [Online] Available at: researchandmarkets.com/reports/570207/ . Slack, N. 2004. Operations Management. (U.K.): Pearson Education, Limited,

IMPACT OF MORE ACCOUNTING INFORMATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

IMPACT OF MORE ACCOUNTING INFORMATION - Essay Example The impact of more accounting information will be discussed in relation to the users of the financial statements such as the shareholders, suppliers, customers and creditors. Likewise, the impact of more accounting information when used by the competitors (Molloy and Molloy, 1996) or employees will also be discussed. Considerations of future situations tend to affect conventional accounting, although using elements of the future forms an essential component of the accounting structure. The financial standard of decision relevancy of accounting (Weston and Brigham, 1993), generally agreed to be a primary factor that gives societal value to accounting, may be weakened by the search for a more trustworthy accounting procedure. One of the best techniques in accounting would be to incorporate aspects of future values without leaving too many degrees of freedom for manipulating the data. The aim is thus to keep accounting credible, and yet predictable and even if more accounting informatio n becomes available, all aspects of the information will have to be considered, before any final conclusion is drawn on the advantages or disadvantages of the accounting information. ... The financial statements are audited by external auditors (Whittington and Pany, 1995) either chartered accountants or certified public accountants in order to give credibility to the statements. All companies are required to give financial statements to its shareholders, suppliers, creditors, employees, managers, board of directors, government regulating bodies and the like in order to ensure that the company does not violate any corporate laws and that they remain accountable to their stakeholders and financiers. The financial statements are important tools for decision making and determine company management policies and thus accounting forms the basis of any corporate management decision making. There have been arguments on incorporating additional estimates or forecasts of the future into financial statements and providing estimates of future cash flows. This may in turn be considered alongside some sensational corporate scandals, for companies located in the US, which have been focused on reducing the power of managers which could engage in fraudulent behavior and accounting manipulation of assets, liabilities and capital. A more reliable and validated or trustworthy figures on the balance sheet is expected and income statement accounts have been implemented by new and more complicated monitoring and inspection processes. As to how far this can be achieved can be studied by using market values in accounting reports. The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAPs) in a number of countries contain elements of the market values of assets and liabilities. To illustrate, International Accounting Standards (IAS), U.K., and U.S. GAAPs require financial investments that are not long-term investments,